4 • Lesson 2 Word List

affect*

(v) 1. To bring about a change in.
Do you think changing schools will affect my grades?

2. To pretend to be or to have.
ming affected an interest in music because she wanted to go on the trip with the choir.

calculate

(v) 1. To find the answer by using arithmetic.
We need to calculate the answers to the questions on the math quiz.

2. To figure out by reasoning.
You'd better calculate the risks carefully before riding that old bicycle.

climate

(n) The average weather conditions of an area.
Florida's warm climate is perfect for growing oranges.

column

(n) 1. A row of figures or words running down a printed page; anything arranged like that.
Do all the problems in the first column on page 30.

2. A tall, usually stone support that holds up something.
Forty-six marble columns support the roof of the Parthenon in Greece.

3. A regular newspaper or magazine article usually written by the same person.
My mother writes a weekly sports column for the News-Tribune.

decay

(v) To rot.
Leaves left on the ground will decay over the winter.

(n) A breaking down or rotting.
Dentists say tooth decay can be prevented by regular brushing and flossing.

exceed*

(v) 1. To be more than.
The final score of Monday's game exceeded our best hopes.

2. To go beyond what is allowed.
The officer who stopped me told me never to exceed the speed limit again.

excess (n) More than enough; an extra amount.
Use what you need, and save the excess.

excessive (adj) Too much or too great.
Last winter my parents paid an excessive amount for heating oil.

forbid

(v) To order not to do something.
School rules forbid running in the hallways.

forbidden (adj) Not allowed.
Eating in class is forbidden.

grove

(n) A group of trees growing together.
The children walked hand in hand through the grove of lemon trees.

limb

(n) 1. An arm, leg, or wing.
Bats use their webbed front and back limbs to fly.

2. A large tree branch.
The owl was perched on the top limb of the tree.

mammoth

(adj) Very large; huge.
The mammoth National Stadium in Singapore holds over fifty thousand people.

mature*

(v) To become fully grown or developed.
Rabbits mature in about six months and are then able to leave their parents.

(adj) Fully grown or developed; adult.
My brother looks very mature for only eleven.

permit

(v) To allow.
My parents do not permit me to stay out later than 7:00 p.m.

(n) A written notice that allows a person to do something.
You need a permit to go fishing in that lake.

resist

(v) 1. To refuse to give in to; to withstand.
Some kinds of corn resist disease better than others.

2. To work or fight against.
It was hard to resist the idea of staying in bed to sleep a little longer.

scorch

(v) To burn slightly.
If you press a shirt with an iron that is too hot, you might scorch the cloth.

scorching (adj) Very hot.
On such a scorching day, the only thing I wanted after school was a swim in the ocean.

tower

(v) To stand above or higher than what is around it.
The Statue of Liberty towers above New York Harbor.

towering (adj) Very high; tall.
Looking up at the towering skyscrapers gave me a stiff neck.

The Bill of Rights The first ten amendments to the Constitution protect a wide range of individual liberties while also helping build trust in the new national government. Many Americans supported the Constitution but worried it did not clearly protect the freedoms they had fought to secure. James Madison argued that adding these amendments would calm those fears and strengthen public confidence by showing that the government would not threaten those rights. Together, these amendments establish key protections while making clear that the government cannot interfere with fundamental freedoms.

The First Amendment The Bill of Rights protects a wide range of individual freedoms by limiting the power of the government to interfere with how people think, speak, and express their beliefs. This amendment guarantees the freedoms of speech, press, and religion, allowing individuals to share ideas, publish information, and practice their beliefs without government control. It also protects the right of people to gather in assembly to express opinions and advocate for change. Together, these protections ensure that the government cannot interfere with expression, even when ideas are unpopular or critical of those in power.

Constutional Amdendments Two through Ten Part of the Bill of Rights, these amendments move beyond freedoms in the First Amendment to define how government power is limited in specific situations. The Second Amendment addresses the right to bear arms, while the Third Amendment limits the quartering of soldiers. The Fourth Amendment protects against unreasonable searches and seizures, and the Fifth Amendment establishes due process before the government can take away life, liberty, or property. The Sixth and Seventh Amendments outline rights in criminal and civil trials, including juries, while the Eighth Amendment protects against excessive fines and cruel and unusual punishment. The Ninth Amendment addresses the enumeration of rights by recognizing that people retain rights not specifically listed, and the Tenth Amendment emphasizes that powers not given to the national government are reserved to the states or the people.

The Suprme Court and Civil Rights The Supreme Court has shaped civil liberties by interpreting the Equal Protection Clause across a series of landmark cases that both limited and expanded rights. Plessy v. Ferguson and Lum v. Rice upheld segregation, while the NAACP challenged segregation in Brown v. Board of Education, and decisions like Hernandez v. Texas and Loving v. Virginia expanded protections against discrimination. The Court developed standards such as strict scrutiny and intermediate scrutiny to evaluate different types of laws, and in Washington v. Davis it ruled that discriminatory intent must be proven rather than relying only on discriminatory effect. In later cases involving gerrymandering and the creation of majority-minority districts, the Court has continued to interpret how equal protection is applied across different groups and situations.

Early Limits on Federal Civil Rights Protections After the Civil War, Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts to reshape Southern governments and protect the rights of formerly enslaved people, while many states enacted Black Codes that restricted those rights. Congress also attempted to protect equal access to public spaces by passing a law that banned discrimination in places like hotels, theaters, and transportation. A series of challenges to this law reached the Supreme Court, where the justices consolidated multiple cases into a single decision known as the Civil Rights Cases of 1883. In that ruling, the Court decided that the Fourteenth Amendment only limited state action and did not apply to private individuals or businesses. As a result, segregation and discrimination continued in many areas of public life.

Debates Over Government Power and Individual Rights Debates over government power and individual rights shaped how the Constitution was understood at the founding. George Mason argued that sovereignty rests with the people, who possess natural rights that government must protect, while Patrick Henry warned that a strong national government could threaten liberty and become oppressive. James Madison emphasized the need to balance power by designing a government strong enough to maintain order but structured to control the effects of faction, and later supported adding amendments to reassure the public and protect rights. Alexander Hamilton argued that the national government needed broad authority to protect the country and manage national interests, while George Washington stressed that unity and a strong government were essential for preserving stability, security, and the nation’s future.

Limits on Individual Liberties Throughout the Supreme Court’s history, the Court has ruled on cases that address conflicts between individual rights and government power. In Jacobson v. Massachusetts, the Court upheld a vaccination requirement, allowing limits on individual liberty during a public health crisis. In Korematsu v. United States, the Court upheld the relocation of Japanese Americans, allowing limits on civil liberties during wartime. In Kelo v. City of New London, the Court allowed the government to take private property for economic development with compensation, expanding government authority over property. In District of Columbia v. Heller, the Court recognized an individual right to possess firearms for self-defense while allowing certain regulations.

The Fourteenth Amendment The Fourteenth Amendment defines citizenship and establishes key protections that limit the power of state governments. It guarantees that all persons born or naturalized in the United States are citizens and includes the Equal Protection Clause, which requires states to treat individuals equally under the law. It also reinforces due process by requiring states to follow fair procedures before taking away life, liberty, or property. By placing these limits on state governments, the amendment extends constitutional protections more broadly across the country.

The Amendment Process This is outlined in Article V of the Constitution, explains the steps required to formally change the nation’s highest law. An amendment can be proposed by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress or by a convention called by two-thirds of the states. It must then be ratified by three-quarters of the states, either through state legislatures or state conventions. Because this process requires approval at multiple levels, it ensures that amendments reflect broad national agreement before becoming part of the Constitution.

Rights and a Changing Constitution Through the amendment process, the Constitution can effect citizen's rights. Following the Civil War, the 13th Amendment abolished slavery and forced labor, while the 14th established broader citizenship. The 15th Amendment then prohibited racial discrimination in voting to secure Reconstruction-era rights. The 17th Amendment mandated the direct election of senators following years of partisan conflict in state legislatures and later bipartisan support in Congress. The 19th Amendment extended voting rights to women after decades of organized advocacy and reform efforts. Finally, the 26th Amendment lowered the voting age to eighteen, driven by Vietnam-era debate over the military draft.