5 • Lesson 2 Word List

(n) A smell or odor, especially a pleasant one.
The aroma of hot buttered popcorn made our mouths water.

(n) A liquid used as a drink.
When we ordered our beverages, I chose lemonade.

(adj) 1. Lacking a strong flavor.
I don't really like bland foods, so I always have a bottle of hot sauce with me.

2. Not irritating, exciting, or disturbing.
The doctor's bland manner soon calmed the crying child.

brittle

(adj) Easily broken; not flexible.
Candy canes are brittle and should be handled with care.

cluster

(n) A number of similar things grouped together.
Clusters of brightly colored flowers grew along the side of the road.

(v) To gather or come together in a group.
The children clustered around the storyteller.

combine

(v) To join or bring together.
We combine oil and vinegar to make the salad dressing.

combination (n) A joining or bringing together.
Our team's victory resulted from a combination of hard work and good luck.

Two children are mixing ingredients in a bowl together, one wearing a chef's hat.

consume

(v) 1. To use up.
Piano practice consumes all of Alex's free time.

2. To eat or drink.
A horse consumes fifty pounds of hay a day.

3. To do away with or destroy.
The forest fire consumed over two thousand acres in Oregon.

A boy drinking water while holding a basketball.

crave

(v) To have a strong desire for.
When he was a teenager, Abraham Lincoln craved knowledge so much that he would walk miles to borrow a book he had not read.

craving (n) A strong desire.
After the hike, we all had a craving for lots of cool water.

cultivate

(v) 1. To prepare land for the growing of crops.
Before the spring planting, farmers cultivate the soil.

2. To grow or to help to grow.
Ana cultivates tomatoes every year in her garden.

3. To encourage development by attention or study.
Parents can cultivate a love of nature in their children by taking them on hikes in the country.

equivalent*

(adj) Equal to.
Although the decimal 0.5 and the fraction 1/2 appear to be different, they are equivalent amounts.

(n) That which is equal to.
One year of a dog's life is the equivalent of seven human years.

Two different sets of stones balanced on a rock, representing the concept of equivalent weight.

export*

(v) To send goods to another country for sale.
Colombia exports coffee to countries all over the world.

(n) Something exported.
Grain is an important export of the United States.

extract*

(v) 1. To remove or take out.
Dr. Bogasian will extract my wisdom tooth next week.

2. To obtain with an effort.
I extracted a promise from them to leave us alone.

(n) Something removed or taken out.
Vanilla extract comes from the seedpods of vanilla plants.

introduce

(v) 1. To cause to know; to make known by name.
Let me introduce you to my new friend, Manoj.

2. To bring to the attention of, especially for the first time.
Our friends in Hawaii introduced us to scuba diving.

3. To bring into use.
The invention of the airplane introduced a new way of traveling.

introduction (n) 1. Something spoken or written before the main part.
We read the introduction before going on to the rest of the book.

2. The act of being made known by name.
After my introduction to the others in the room, I relaxed and enjoyed the party.

A doctor shakes hands with a young girl while her mother smiles beside her.

purchase

(v) To buy.
My older brother is saving money to purchase a used car so he can get to his job more easily.

(n) 1. Something that is bought.
My aunt came over to give us her purchases from the market for Sunday dinner.

2. The act of buying.
I looked at and rode several bicycles before I made a purchase.

tropical

(adj) 1. Of, from, or similar to the regions near the equator.
Ecuador, which lies on the equator, is a tropical country.

2. Hot and moist.
In Miami, we have tropical weather even in the winter months.

The Electoral College When Americans vote for president, they are not directly choosing a candidate. They are selecting an electoral slate pledged to vote for that candidate. Each state is assigned a number of electors based on its total representation in Congress, meaning larger states carry more weight in the outcome. In most states, whichever candidate wins the popular vote receives all of that state's electoral votes. A candidate must win at least 270 of the 538 total electoral votes to win the presidency.

Elections in the United States In the United States, elections are decentralized, meaning they are managed primarily by state and local governments rather than a single national authority. The Elections Clause gives states broad authority to set rules for how elections are conducted, including voter registration requirements. Citizens vote within geographic districts to choose representatives who will act on behalf of their constituents. In some states, voters can also weigh in directly on policy through ballot measures. Presidential elections route votes through the Electoral College, with each state's electors casting the official votes that determine the winner. Civic participation in elections is one of the most direct ways citizens can influence their government.

Types of Civic Participation There are four main ways citizens can engage with their government and community. Informational engagement means staying informed about civic affairs and sharing knowledge with others. Communicative engagement includes contacting elected officials, writing letters, or speaking at public meetings. Institutional engagement includes voting, running for office, or serving on a jury. Community-based engagement involves organizing local efforts to address shared problems. No single form is the most effective in every situation, as what works depends on the goal and the contextual factors surrounding it.

The Founders' Ideas on Civic Engagement The Founders believed that a healthy democracy depended on an engaged citizenry willing to take an active role in self-governance. They viewed civic participation not just as a right but as a responsibility rooted in the social contract, the idea that citizens and their government have mutual obligations to one another. A strong foundation in civics was seen as essential, because an ignorant public could not effectively evaluate their leaders or hold government accountable.

Electing Congress The United States Congress is made up of two chambers, each with different qualifications and terms. Members of the House of Representatives must be at least 25 years old, a U.S. citizen for at least seven years, and a resident of the state they represent. There are 435 House members, each serving two-year terms and representing a geographic district. Senators must be at least 30 years old, a citizen for at least nine years, and a resident of their state. There are 100 senators, two from each state, serving six-year terms.

Information and Civic Engagement The Founders believed that an ignorant citizenry is one of the greatest threats to democratic civic participation, and the spread of false or misleading information makes it harder for citizens to engage effectively. Misinformation refers to false or inaccurate information shared without the intent to deceive. Disinformation is false information that is deliberately created and spread to mislead. Malinformation is information that is technically true but is shared with the intent to cause harm. In a functioning democracy, citizens must be able to distinguish between accurate and misleading information.

How to Vote In order to vote, citizens must first complete voter registration, a process shaped by state law but supported federally by the National Voter Registration Act of 1993, which made it easier for citizens to register when completing other government transactions. Citizens who cannot vote in person on Election Day have several options. Absentee voting allows voters to request a ballot in advance due to absence or other qualifying reasons. Mail-in voting allows ballots to be completed and returned by mail, and early voting allows citizens to cast their ballot at a polling location before Election Day. Generally, citizens must be at least 18 years old, a U.S. citizen, and a resident of the state where they are voting.

Control Over Elections Elections in the United States operate through a decentralized system in which responsibility is shared across levels of government. State governments play the central role, setting rules for voter registration, approving voting equipment, and certifying results, but must operate within the boundaries set by the Constitution and federal law. Local jurisdictions handle the day-to-day work, including preparing polling places, training poll workers, designing ballots, and counting votes. The federal government's role is more limited, focused primarily on establishing baseline standards that protect voting rights and ensure consistency across states.

Evaluating Effective Civic Participation Not every method of civic engagement produces the same results in every situation. Whether an approach succeeds depends on contextual factors such as the goal, the level of government involved, the resources available, and the political conditions at the time. Voting, contacting elected officials, organizing in the community, and public protest can all lead to change, but each works differently depending on the circumstances. Understanding those conditions helps citizens make informed decisions about how to engage.